SCIENCE CHINA Information Sciences, Volume 62 , Issue 9 : 192101(2019) https://doi.org/10.1007/s11432-018-9702-7

## Applying Ricci flow to high dimensional manifold learning

Yangyang LI 1,2,*,
• AcceptedSep 11, 2018
• PublishedMay 14, 2019
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### Acknowledgment

This work was supported by National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFB1000902), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 61472412, 61621003), Beijing Science and Technology Project, and Tsinghua-Tencent-AMSS-Joint Project.

### References

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• Figure 1

The intuitive process of the RF-ML algorithm. The sub-images from left to right are input data points distributed on manifold $\mathcal{M}$, overlapping patches, overlapping patches flowing into discrete spherical patches using Ricci flow, and alignment of spherical patches to a subset of a sphere, respectively. On the bottom is the representation of data points in a low dimensional Euclidean space.

• Figure 2

(Color online) The neighborhood preserving rate of two-dimensional Ellipsoid embedded in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. Compute the NPRs under different neighborhood size parameter values $K$ with five manifold learning algorithms.

• Figure 3

(Color online) The intuitive embedding of puncture sphere database under different algorithms. (a) The original database; (b) Isomap; (c) LLE; (d) LEP; (e) LTSA; (f) RF-ML.

• Figure 4

(Color online) The intuitive embedding of Gaussian database under different algorithms. (a) The original database; (b) Isomap; (c) LLE; (d) LEP; (e) LTSA; (f) RF-ML.

• Figure 5

(Color online) The curvature distributions of the (a) ORL face database, (b) Yale face database, (c) YaleB face database, and (d) USPS database.

• Figure 6

(Color online) The classification accuracies of different manifold learning algorithms under different low dimensions $d$.

•

Algorithm 1 Applying Ricci flow to manifold learning (RF-ML)

series Input: Training data points $\{x_1,x_2,\ldots~,x_N\}\in~\mathbb{R}^D$, neighbor size parameter $K$.1.for $i=1$ to $N$ do2. Find $K$-nearest neighbors of $x_i$;3. Compute tangent space $T_{x_i}~\mathcal{M}$;4.end for5.Repeat6. Update the Ricci flow equations using Eqs. (11)–(13);7.Until convergence;8.Align the deformed $\{Y_1,~Y_2,\ldots,~Y_N\}$ to a complete subset $P$ of sphere;9.Use traditional manifold learning algorithms to reduce the dimension of spherical data points.

series Output: Low dimensional representations $\{z_1,z_2,\ldots~z_N\}~\in~\mathbb{R}^d$.

• Table 1   Number of neighborhoods in each dimension$^{\rm~a)}$
 Databases ORL Face Yale Face YaleB Face Weizmann Swiss Roll Sphere Org-dim 1024* 1024* 1024* 200* 3* 3* 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 90 1000 984 3 0 0 38 317 – 16 4 0 0 238 366 – – 5 0 0 362 315 – – 6 6 0 415 251 – – 7 214 9 772 349 – – 8 182 156 583 387 – – 9 – – 6 – – – Total 400* 165* 2414* 2075* 1000* 1000* $K$ 10 10 10 10 10 10 Ratio 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95

a

• Table 2   Neighborhood preserving ratio. In this experiment, we fix the neighborhood-size parameter $K~=~10$$^{\rm~a)}$
 Methods PCA Isomap LLE LEP LTSA TLE RF-ML Swiss Roll $0.5137$ $0.8594$ $0.6187$ $0.3981$ $0.6121$ $\textbf{0.8701}$ $0.8594$ Ellipsoid $0.4399$ $0.6914$ $0.6205$ $0.7506$ $0.4390$ $0.7246$ $\textbf{0.8702}$ Sphere $0.4815$ $0.6467$ $0.5213$ $0.7720$ $0.5465$ $0.6871$ $\textbf{0.8684}$ Gaussian $0.9969$ $0.9261$ $0.9359$ $0.6406$ $\textbf{0.9970}$ $0.9421$ $0.9909$

a) The blod fonts represent the highest value of neighborhood preserving ratio.

• Table 3   Neighborhood preserving ratio$^{\rm~a)}$
 Method PCA LPP LLE LEP LTSA RF-ML ORL DB $52.50~\pm~1.2$ $62.50~\pm~2.1$ $61.87~\pm~1.6$ $63.82\pm~2.3$ $60.31~\pm~1.6$ $65.04~\pm~1.3$ Yale DB $35.73~\pm~1.4$ $71.24~\pm~1.8$ $69.05~\pm~2.2$ $72.06\pm~1.5$ $70.43~\pm~1.4$ $73.28~\pm~1.6$ YaleB DB $63.72\pm~1.7$ $67.26\pm~1.2$ $60.46~\pm~1.7$ $72.62\pm~1.8$ $65.76~\pm~1.3$ $73.95~\pm~2.1$ USPS DB $86.69\pm~0.9$ $91.61\pm~1.3$ $84.62\pm~1.5$ $92.53\pm~1.1$ $86.12~\pm~1.4$ $93.01\pm~1.7$

a

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